Prepositions and their meanings
What is participial? Progressive continuous action which is normally temporary. Basically, it shows the result/ the consequence of an action.
The Prepositions of English In Brief. |
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Prepositions | Meaning and Function | Extended/Archaic Meanings | |
ABOARD | The subject is in/on a means of transport such as a ship, plane, train, space ship, or is moving into/onto such a position. | extension of core meaning | |
ABOUT | The subject is randomly positioned or randomly moving or is unordered in relation to the object. | a) The subject originates out of something, though the following result is vague b) The subject is estimated to be vaguely near the object c) The subject discusses/refers to the subject in a random way | |
ABOVE | The subject is higher than and only partly (or not at all) over the object, and thus is detached in some way from the object. | a) The subject is at a potentially higher level over the object b) The subject is superior to and detached from the object | |
ABREAST | The subject is right beside the object. | ||
ABSENT | without, not including | ||
ACROSS, CROSS | a) The subject is positioned or moving sideways in/on/at/over the object b) The subject is on the opposite side of the object from a reference point. The object allows crosswise position or movement from one side to the other, and is not a barrier. | extension of core meaning | |
ADJACENT | The subject is by (near, next to) the object | extension of core meaning (for some speakers) The subject is positioned opposite the object | |
AFTER | The subject is later in time or place than the object, which is the starting reference or positioning point for the subject in time or place. | a) The subject is named for the object b) The subject develops ultimately from the object c) (rare) The subject is created by the object | |
AGAINST | The subject directly touches the object, but the object does not directly support the subject (that is to say, there is straightforward contact with no direct dependence of the subject on the object) | a) The subject is in opposition to, or in competition with, the object b) The subject is prepared in anticipation of a potential eventuality (the object). | |
ALONG | The subject is positioned or moving lengthwise in/on/at/by the object, which is the pathway the subject is following or positioned lengthwise. | extension of core meaning | |
ALONGSIDE | The subject is positioned or moving specifically lengthwise at/by/beside the object, which is the focal point beside which the subject positions itself or moves. | extension of core meaning | |
AMID(ST) | The subject is in the middle/among of the object(s) – which surround(s) and contain(s) the subject | extension of core meaning | |
AMONG(ST) | The subject is contained within a real or abstract area defined by the object, which is a group – the group forms a containment area for the subject | extension of core meaning | |
ANENT | concerning, with regard to, regarding. | ||
AROUND, ROUND | The subject is positioned/moves in an orderly way in relation to the object – the object is the central or surrounding position which anchors the subject’s positioning or movement directly to it in a basically circular way. | a) The subject is estimated to be close to the object b) The subject avoids the object by circling it (at least partially) | |
AS | The subject is absolutely the same in some way or other as the object, which is the reference that the subject duplicates. | extension of core meaning | |
ASLANT | The subject is oblique or slanting in relation to the object | extension of core meaning | |
ASTRIDE | The subject is across or over the object with a support on each side of the object. | The subject is positioned (or moving) with its supports hanging on either side of the object. | |
AT | The object which is a position, time, measurement, activity etc. used by the subject. | a) The subject is engaged in using an activity or skill (the object). b) The subject is less than successful at attaining an object goal. c) The subject does not expect a response from the object.
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ATHWART | The subject is positioned or moving sideways in/on/at/over the prepositional object – the object allows crosswise positioning of the subject and is not a barrier to the subject. | extension of core meaning | |
ATOP | The object supports the subject on its top surface. | extension of core meaning | |
BECAUSE | The subject (a situation) is caused by the object (another situation) – the object is the (originating) cause for the subject situation. | ||
BEFORE, AFORE, FORE | The subject is positioned/moves in a non-specific way in the area at the fore side of the object – in the case of time, this is earlier than the reference time. The object is intrinsically important to the subject in anchoring its position in time or place so that it can be ‘seen’ by the object. | extension of core meaning – The subject is in clear view of the object, which controls it in some way. | |
BEHIND | The subject is positioned/moves in the area at the back or after the object, which is intrinsically important to the subject in anchoring its position after it so that the subject can’t be seen by the object [at least potentially]. | The subject is hidden from our consciousness by being either figuratively or in reality behind the object. | |
BELOW | The subject is lower than the object and potentially/partially under the object – the subject is not part of the same space as the object. | a) The subject is inferior to and detached from the object b) The subject is at a potentially lower level from the object – and can be viewed with disrespect. | |
BENEATH | The subject is specifically below the object. | The subject can be viewed with specific disrespect as being specifically inferiority. | |
BESIDE | The subject is at/by the side of the object; this is a mutual side-by-side positioning which is important and which shows a special relationship of the subject to the object and the object to the subject. | extension of core meaning | |
BESIDES | The subject is an addition to the object, which adds the subject to itself as an addition. | extension of core meaning – The subject is further to be taken into consideration. | |
BETWEEN, BETWIXT | The subject is bounded by two or more things, which themselves are considered individually from each other; at any one time in the situation there is a object on either side of the subject. The object forms a demarkation/ containment area for the subject on two sides. | extension of core meaning | |
BEYOND | The subject is on the other side of the object from a reference point. The object is a barrier or a boundary which divides the subject from the referent point. | The object is a barrier over which it is difficult or undesirable to pass | |
BY | The subject is or moves more-or-less coincidentally near/next to the object, which is a reference point that is not overtly involved in the subject – there is potential direct contact with the object which does not actually happen – or if it does, is merely coincidental and won’t last. | a) The subject is done/caused/led to by the object (actor, action, activity), which is detached from the subject (and the result). b) The subject is anchored in abstract position to the object without direct contact or togetherness c) (in time) the subject is bounded in time before or at the object time. | |
CIRCA | around, near, about , approximately (only with dates) | ||
DESPITE | there is a disregard of something which would normally not be disregarded | extension of core meaning | |
DOWN | The subject (1) is moving to, or (2) is at a lower position along/on/at/in the object, or (3) is moving to, or (4) is at a lower position in relation to another position. The object is a ‘pathway’ for movement to, or position at, a lower position. | a) The subject is NOT worthy of respect – it as at a lower plane. b) The subject is NOT at the head of an organisation, at the beginning of a line, etc. c) The object establishes a basis for the subject. | |
DURING | The subject is in an action/state/activity that lasts/is ongoing/is situated indefinitely within the object (a period of time). The object time period contains the subject within it for an indefinite period or at an indefinite time. | extension of core meaning | |
FOR | The object is an indefinite or uncertain or potential or expected or secondary goal or assumption for the subject. | a) The object is a length of time or distance within which the subject has uncertain/potential/indefinite/undefined possibilities of action (etc.). b) The subject temporarily replaces the object because it is able to potentially or actually permanently replace the object. | |
FROM | The subject moves away, or has moved away, from the object, which is the definite departure point and originating point of the subject’s movement. | a) The object is the origin for the subject. b) The subject keeps away from the object, which is potentially a goal (that is to say, the object is to be avoided by the subject). | |
IN | The subject is held by containment by the object, or moves into containment by the object, or is within the time period represented by the object. The object contains the subject either partially or completely. | extension of core meaning – i.e. the subject is contained (enveloped or held) by an abstract field or line or world. | |
INSIDE | The subject is completely contained by the object (is inside rather than outside). | extension of core meaning | |
INTO | The subject moves from outside to inside the object, which takes and then holds the subject by containing it. | a) The subject moves to being more inside the object, which takes the subject into ‘deeper’ containment. b) The subject enters or leaves the perceiver’s awareness by entering the object. | |
LIKE | The object is a reference of similarity for the subject. | extension of core meaning | |
NEAR, NEARBY | The subject is close to the object, which is a reference point for close position. | extension of core meaning | |
OF | The subject is a part of the object or in origin part of the object. That is to say, the object is the whole which the subject is or was part of. | a) The object is a situation, fact, feeling or knowledge that the subject is partially aware of, or lacks all awareness of. b) The subject has awareness of the object and thereby gains some benefit out of that awareness. c) The subject has awareness of the object and chooses to ignore it. d) The subject is an impersonal or abstract part of the object (often the owner), or has a formal, impersonal relationship to the object. e) The subject moves out/ away from the object. | |
OFF | The subject is not, or is no longer, touching, or is not to touch, the object and is not being supported by it; its relationship to the object is very vague. The object doesn’t support the subject at all. | a) The subject has completely changed from one object situation to another – the object situation no longer exists. b) The subject’s action is incompletely/imperfectly brought to an end – the completion is bad – and the action no longer exists. | |
ON | The subject is, or moves into being, totally supported by the object; without the object, the subject cannot be in the position it is in; the object is the complete and only support/reason for the subject. | a) The subject continues/does the object activity without change – the object is an activity that keeps the subject occupied. b) The object is affected completely by the subject, often to its disadvantage. c) The subject is dependent on the object and does not control it. | |
ONTO | The subject moves to a position where it is totally/solely supported or held by the object. | extension of core meaning | |
OPPOSITE | The subject is directly on the other side of the object from a reference point. | The subject is in direct competition with the object. | |
OUT | a) The subject is not inside the object, which doesn’t contain the subject, though it could potentially do so. b) The subject moves from containment within the object, which no longer contains the subject. | a) The subject enters the perceiver’s awareness from being hidden by the object. b) The subject leaves the perceiver’s awareness (the object). | |
OUTSIDE | The subject is not inside the object, or moves from within the object, or is at the outer side of the object. | extension of core meaning | |
OVER | The object is the point the subject is directly positioned above. | a) The object is a line or limit (barrier, intervening space, point in time, etc.) that the subject crosses. b) The subject covers the whole object c) The subject repeats the same object activity d) The subject is turned upside down or downside up e) The object is the accidental cause of the action (e.g. fight over). | |
PAST | The subject approaches, passes and then moves away from the object. | The prepositional subject has already passed and is now away from the prepositional subject. | |
PER | The subject is part of a larger amount that is directly applicable to the object, which is itself a part of a larger amount. Each part of the object gets an appropriate part of the subject. | In combinations such as AS PER and perhaps the subject is to be done according to the object. | |
POST | The subject comes after the object in time. | ||
PRE | The subject comes before the object in time. | ||
QUA | in the capacity of, as | ||
RE | about, regarding, in reference to, with regards to the object | ||
SINCE | The subject situation is dependent on the object situation in that this marks the starting point of the period which has led to the subject situation. | One situation leads to another | |
THAN | The subject is not equal to the object in being less or more in comparison to the object. The object is the reference standard for the subject. | Than as a relative shows a radical difference between to clauses. | |
THROUGH | The object is a field/activity (etc.) which the subject enters, crosses, and then (potentially) leaves from the other side. | The subject enters a period of activity specified by the object, spends time and effort doing the activity to finish the activity, and then (potentially) succeeds in entering the period of time and the benefits of having completed the activity; the activity is generally the key to obtaining a result | |
THROUGHOUT | The subject moves from a starting point in every direction outwards and around in the object to arrive everywhere in the object | extension of core meaning | |
TO | The subject moves towards and arrives at the object, which is the subject’s goal. The object is the goal reference. | a) the object is a definite goal for the subject, and the subject expects a [positive] response from the object. b) The subject makes reference to the object as the source of a reference. c) The subject changes state to object. d) The subject wants us to believe the object (the subject’s goal is this belief). | |
TOWARD(S) | The subject moves in the direction of the goal – but with no expectation of arrival at the goal. | The subject has no expectations from the object. | |
UNDER(NEATH), BENEATH | The subject is directly below the object, which covers or even hides the subject by being over it. | The subject is directly controlled by the object with no possibility of independence. | |
UNLIKE | The subject is not similar to the object, which is the reference standard. | extension of core meaning | |
UNTIL,TILL | The subject reaches the object after a period of movement in time or space – the object is the final point in the movement. | extension of core meaning | |
UNTO | The subject continues until the object, which is the finishing point. | extension of core meaning | |
UP | The subject (1) is moving to, or (2) is at a higher position along/on/at/in the object, or (3) is moving to, or (4) is at a higher position, or is at a higher position. The object is a ‘pathway’ for movement to a higher position. | a) The subject is worthy of respect – it as at a higher plane. b) The subject is at the head of an organisation, at the beginning of a line, etc. c) The subject is (figuratively) produced and held up for all to perceive. d) The result is satisfactory. | |
UPON | Highly formal, dialect, archaic variant of ON | extension of core meaning | |
VERSUS | shows the opponents in competition (sports, legal cases); against, with | extension of core meaning | |
VIA | by way of : the subject uses the object to get from A to B, and the object is a pathway from A to B. | extension of core meaning | |
VIS-À-VIS | in comparison to/with, in relation to, toward(s), as opposed to, referential orientation towards the object | face to face | |
WITH | The subject and object are, or act, in togetherness, the subject has a relationship of togetherness with the object. | a) The subject has the object. b) The object is used by the subject (the subject and object act together to do the action). c) The subject attacks/competes against the object. | |
WITHIN | The subject is inside the object. | extension of core meaning | |
WITHOUT | The subject and object are not together or do not act together (and potentially could be). | a) The subject does not have the object (and potentially could have it). b) The object is a tool that the subject could use, but doesn’t. c) The object is an action/actor that could do the action, but doesn’t. d) (archaic/formal) The subject is at the outer side of the object, and is not inside. | |
For/to
POINT 1:
The preposition for has a specific meaning, the meaning is {potential goal}.
examples:
- The police have come for peter. What this mean is that at the front door or in reception are the police, where peter is, I don’t know, and they have discovered peter but they have not yet got peter.
- I am looking for my keys. I don’t know where my keys are, and I hope that I will find my keys but not yet. This is what potential goal is, that I have a goal, my keys, I do not know if I will be successful. Same for the police, they have come for peter, but they do not yet know if they will actually catch peter.
- I have a gift for you.
- I am studying for my master’s.
- He was arrested for selling drugs in the street.
- They were arrested for demonstrating against the government.
- She was given a prize for discovering a new medical procedure.
therefore:
For is (potential, maybe) goal.
POINT 2:
After for, you can have any nominal phrase, ing form, pronoun, noun, etc.
For [potential goal] + [nominal phrase like ing verb]
To is moving and arriving.
- I applied to Monash university for a PhD position. [The application went to Monash and arrived, so TO shows the movement, a definite arrival, for PhD, maybe yes maybe no.
- She applied to the company for a job. The application definitely goes to the company, but getting the job is potential. Maybe 5000 other people have applied.
- I wrote the letter to [definite arrival] my sister for [indefinite arrival or temporary replacement] my mother.
POINT 3:
TO shows the definite arrival of the thing, whereas for is for the indefinite arrival.
- my mother had broken her hand, so I had to write the letter to my sister, or I wrote the letter to my sister, for my sister to give it to my mother, what I don’t know is, if my sister really will give it to my mother.
- She wants to drink a cup of coffee. {a definite thing}
- She hopes to get a good job, it’s much more definite
For shows (indefinite arrival, or temporary replacement)
- The principal of the school was sick and so the vice principal met the special guests for him. Temporary replacement, if you can replace someone temporary, in theory you can actually do the job. My colleague, fellow teacher was sick and I did her class for her.
So, this FOR, this vague thing of maybe I will get what I want, I’m doing this now, I could possibly do this permanently, but it is just now, it’s something vague about FOR.
- She hopes for world peace, it’s a maybe
QUESTION:
I have a gift for you. When does this become, I give the gift to you?
When I accept, it becomes I give the gift to you, when I accept.
I have a letter for you, it looks very official, and then you can say no, it is an official letter, I don’t want it.
You use to and for, depending on how definite it is.
- For each of the following sentences (all from the opening pages of Mary Shelley’s novel Frankenstein), underline the complement of the doubly underlined preposition – all the words that make up the complement, but no other words. In each case give the category of the complement.
- What may not be expected in a country of eternal light?
- Six years have passed since I resolved on my present undertaking.
- I commenced by inuring my body to hardship.
- My life might have been passed in ease and luxury.
- They fly quickly over the snow in their sledges.
- List ten word sequences that are standardly described as ‘complex prepositions ‘.
- by means of hard work
- by virtue of her age
- in photos of their parents
- on behalf of my son
- in front of the car
- with effect from today
- in league with the devil
- with knowledge of his goals
Sentence examples:
- Means of hard work enabled her to pass the exam.
- Virtue of her age led them to drop the charges.
- Photos of their parents were lying on the table.
Point:
The expressions photos of their parents, questions of ethics and knowledge of his goals are obviously NPs which happen to be functioning as complement of a preposition but which can also appear in the normal range of noun phrase functions.
- Determine which of the verbs below belong to the class of prepositional verbs. For those that do, identify the preposition(s) they select and provide relevant examples. (Do this exercise with the help of a good dictionary.) For each verb + preposition sequence say whether or not it is fossilised, and provide evidence that your claim about fossilisation is correct.
Bank- Believe- Convince- Fall- Feel- Hope- See- Stand- Treat- wait
- The word up is a particle in We folded up the map but not in We climbed up the mountain. What syntactic differences can you find between the two constructions? Use these differences to say for each of the following which of the two kinds of construction it belongs to.
- I looked over my shoulder.
- We must bring in the washing.
- We ‘d better run off some more copies.
- I knocked over the vase.
- He never got over his disappointment.
- For each of the following words, decide whether it is a preposition or an adjective, and give arguments to support your view: about; ahead; aloof; aloft; around.
- Construct an example, complete with as much context as necessary, to show that when the context is right a pronoun can FOLLOW the particle in a verb + particle construction like rip you off or call him out or turn them down, if it is contrastively stressed.
- Which of the following prepositions can occur in declarative main clauses either with or without an NP complement? Give examples to illustrate both uses, noting those which occur without an NP complement only in a restricted subset of their uses/meanings:
against – between – despite – inside – opposite – throughout – to – underneath – until – within
- The following examples have stranded prepositions. Construct corresponding examples with a fronted preposition. If you find any of your examples ungrammatical, mark them with * in the usual way.
- They couldn’t agree on who it referred to.
- What am I supposed to cut this thing with?
- He’s the man I showed the photo to.
- The place we ‘re going to is so informal they don ‘t have table cloths.
- It was the only proposal which every department member agreed with.
- The following examples have fronted prepositions. Construct corresponding examples with a stranded preposition. If the example turns out to be ungrammatical, mark it with *
- Under what circumstances would you agree?
- In what year was she born?
- He came to the bed in which Goldilocks had been sleeping.
- It appealed to everyone with whom he discussed it.
- It was a situation in which it would have been hard for anyone to form a judgement concerning what to do
